p.218

G. Buchan Hepburn's 'General View of the Agriculture and Economy of East Lothian, 1794,' p.151.

p.219-1

Dr. Carlyle, 'Autobiography,' p.326.

p.219-2

 Ibid. 303.

p.220

There is every reason to believe that at a remote period, Scotland had been well cultivated.  The army of Edward I. subsisted on the beans and pease which they found in the field, when besieging Dirleton, East Lothian, in 1298; and from the old chartularies of the Monastic establishments, it is clear that wheat was cultivated to a considerable extent, at the same time.  Adda, mother of William the Lion, having founded a nunnery at the Abbey, near Haddington, about the year 1178, endowed it with the rents of certain lands in the neighbourhood.  The rents were paid in kind for the maintenance of the nuns, and consisted, amongst other things, of four bolls of wheat and three bolls of oatmeal yearly.  And yet, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the production of wheat in Scotland had been entirely discontinued.

p.221

Among these were Fletcher of Saltoun, the Earl of Wigton, and others.  For further remarks as to the decayed state of Scotland at this time, see vol. iii. 'History of Roads,' pp. 48-59.

p.223

Appendix to 'Picture of Dumfries.'  By John MacDiarmid. Edinburgh, 1832.

p.224

'Farmer's Magazine,' No. xxxiv., p.199.

p.226

Besides the abundance of schools, and the excellence of the education given, the moderation of the fees charged is worthy of notice.  Dr. Guthrie, in his 'Autobiography,' mentions the schools at Brechin, where he was educated some sixty years ago.  First, he was taught at a private school, of which the late Dr. McCrie was the teacher.  "Besides this school," he says, "there were two others in Brechin where Latin and Greek, French and Mathematics, were taught.  One of these was endowed from property belonging in Roman Catholic times to the Knights Templars, who had a preceptory there.  The other was the parish school.  Both were conducted by 'preachers,' or licentiates of the Church of Scotland—university men who had spent at least eight years at college.  Both prepared young men for the university, teaching them, besides the more common branches of education, Algebra, Euclid, French, Latin, Greek, and all for five shillings a quarter!  That may astonish people now-a-days.  But so it was; and the bursaries which a large proportion of these pupils won by open competition at the universities of St. Andrews and Aberdeen, while the means of their support there, proved the goodness of the teaching they got for this small sum.  The result of this cheap and efficient education was that the sons of many poor and humble people pulled their way up to honourable positions in life, while the parents had not their self-respect and feelings of independence lowered by owing the superior education of their children to others than themselves." ('Autobiography,' pp. 33-34.)

p.227

A writer, in the Scotch Farmer's Magazine for 1810, makes the following observations:—"During the last fifty years Scotland has made rapid progress in agriculture, architecture, navigation, and commerce; and if in some she has excelled her neighbours, it may perhaps be ascribed to that wholesome and useful system of parochial education, which was bequeathed to her children by the last Parliament which she ever assembled as an independent kingdom.  The elements of learning, consisting of reading, writing, and accounts, though seemingly superficial attainments, have nevertheless, been of immense value to the people.  They have enabled them to comprehend, adopt, and improve to the utmost, every new branch of science, as soon as it sprung up in any corner of Europe: and there is no circumstance so peculiar in the possession of a little knowledge, as the desire which it communicates, and the capacity which it bestows, of obtaining still more."

p.228

Amongst George Rennie's illustrious visitors in his later years was the Grand Duke Nicholas (afterwards Emperor) of Russia, who stayed several nights at Phantassie, and during the time was present at the celebration of a "hind's wedding."

p.233

'Essays on the Trade, Commerce, Manufactures, and Fisheries of Scotland.'

p.236

It would seem that the ancestors of Meikle were held in esteem as ingenious workmen for generations; the Scots Parliament having, in 1686, passed a special Act for the encouragement of John Meikle, founder, who, it appears was the first person to introduce the art of iron-founding into Scotland.

p.239-1

The Marquis of Tweeddale introduced the turnip into the county in 1740; the Earl of Haddington and Mr. Walker of Beanston, first adopted the system of fallowing land and sowing broad clover and rye-grass.  Lord Eubank and Sir Hew Dalrymple divided between them the merit of inventing or introducing the practice of under-draining; and Sir George Suttie first employed the Norfolk system of rotation of crops.

p.239-2

Brown on 'Rural Affairs.'

p.240

See Adam Smith's 'Wealth of Nations,' Book II., Chap. 2.

p.241

Patent No. 896.  The name of Robert Mackell (employed with James Watt in the survey of the "ditch canal" through Perthshire—see Life of Smeaton) was associated with that of Meikle in this patent; Mackell probably finding the money, and Meikle the brains.

p.242

Afterwards Sir Francis Kinloch.

p.243

The following is a literal copy of the memorandum which was drawn up and signed on the occasion:—

"Know Mill, 14th Feb., 1778.—We whose names are subjoined, desired by Andrew Meikle to witness an experiment of his threshing machine, mett this day, and after one hour's performance of said machine, with the assistance of one man to feed in and carry of the straw, dight and measured up one boll, and two forpets barley being of meen qualitie, We are of opinion that a Man, in the ordinary way of threshing, could not threshed abuve five, or 6 firlots at most, in one day.  The machine being simple, we suppose one horse may worke it without an aditional man.  The saving most be considerable.

p.244

'A Reply to an Address to the Public, but more particularly to the Landed Interest of Great Britain and Ireland, on the subject of the Threshing Machine.'  By John Sheriff.  Edinburgh 1811.

p.246

Patent No. 1645: "Machine for separating Corn from Straw."

p.247

'Memoirs of Sir John Sinclair,' vol. ii. p.99.

p.251

It is remarkable that Scotch biography should be altogether silent respecting this ingenious and useful workman.  In the most elaborate of the Scotch biographical collections—that of Robert Chambers, in four large volumes—not a word occurs relating to Meikle.  An article is devoted to Mickle, the translator of another man's invention in the shape of a poem, the 'Lusiad;' but the name of the inventor of the thrashing-machine is not even mentioned; affording a singular illustration of the neglect which this department of biography has heretofore experienced, though it has been by men such as Meikle, and not by poets, that this country has in a great measure been made what it is.

p.264

In the interval between 1784 and 1792, not fewer than 302 Acts were passed authorising the construction of new roads and bridges, 64 authorising the formation of canals and harbours, and still more numerous Acts for carrying out measures of drainage, enclosure, paving, and other local improvements—a sufficient indication of the industrial activity of the nation at that time.

p.269

Shortly after the completion of these mills, Mr. Rennie was largely consulted on the subject of machinery of all kinds.  The Corporations of London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, and other places, took his advice as to flour-mills.  Agriculturists consulted him about thrashing-mills, millers about grinding-mills, and manufacturers and distillers respecting the better arrangement of their works.  In July, 1798, he was called upon to examine the machinery and arrangements at the Royal Mint on Tower Hill.  The result was, the construction of an entire new mint, worked by steam-power, with improved rolling, cutting out, and stamping machinery, after Mr. Rennie's designs.  The new machinery was introduced between the years 1806 and 1810.  The cutting-out and stamping-machines were the invention of the late Matthew Boulton, of Soho, but the machinery was by Rennie.  On one occasion, in 1819, a million of sovereigns was turned out in eight days!  During the great silver coinage in 1826, the eight presses turned out, for nine months, not less than 247,696 pieces per day, the rolling going on day and night, and the stamping for fifteen hours out of every twenty-four.  Mr. Rennie also supplied the machinery for the mints at Calcutta and Bombay; that erected at the former place being capable of turning out 200,000 pieces of silver in every eight hours.

p.272-1

His first place of business was at Old Jamaica Wharf, Upper Ground Street, Lambeth.

p.272-2

Ed.—Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl Stanhope, F.R.S. (1753-1816) was a British statesman, scientist and inventor, among his inventions being the printing press (ca. 1800) which bears his name.  In it, Stanhope retained the conventional screw for applying pressure to the work, but separated it from the spindle and bar, inserting a system of compound levers between them. The effect of several levers acting upon each other was to increase considerably the power applied resulting in sharper impressions.

p.273

He adopted paddles, placed under the quarters of the vessel, which were made to open and shut like the feet of a duck.

p.274

Ed.—The Kennet & Avon Canal was opened between Newbury and Bath in 1810 but (in common with many other British canals) the coming of railways—in this case the opening of the Great Western Railway in 1841—removed much of the traffic and the canal went into decline, falling into disuse in the 1950s when a stoppage at Burghfield made it impassable and large sections of the canal were closed due of poor lock maintenance. However, in 1956 The Kennet and Avon Canal Trust successfully petitioned against its legal closure and,  following the formation of the British Waterways Board in 1963, restoration work commenced.  The fully restored canal (the first to be grade I listed) was re-opened by HM The Queen on 8 August 1990.

    The complete navigation runs from High Bridge, Reading, where it joins the River Thames, to the floating harbour at Bristol. The original Kennet and Avon Canal linked the River Kennet at Newbury to the River Avon at Bath (57 miles); however, the "navigation" extends between the River Thames at Reading and the Floating Harbour at Bristol (87 miles) using the earlier improved river navigations of the River Kennet, between Reading and Newbury, and River Avon between Bath and Bristol.

p.276

Ed.—Rennie's Avoncliffe Aqueduct was opened 1801. It comprises three arches, and is 110 yards long. Its central elliptical arch is of 60 ft span with two side arches each semicircular and of 34 ft span, all with V-jointed arch stones. The spandrel and wing walls are built in alternate courses of ashlar masonry, and rock-faced blocks. Throughout its life the central span gave structural problems and has been repaired many times.

p.281-1

The following canal works of Mr. Rennie may be mentioned—The Aberdeen and Inverurie, 12 miles long, laid out and constructed by him in 1796-7; the Calder Reservoirs and improvement of the Trent and Mersey Canal at Rudyard Valley, near Leek, 1797-8; a branch of the Grand Trunk Canal to Henley, with a railway connecting it with the manufactories.  He also made elaborate reports on the Leominster Canal (1798); on the Chelmer and Blackwater Navigation; Somersetshire and Dorsetshire Canal; Horncastle Navigation; River Foss Navigation; Polbrook Canal (1799); Rotherhithe and Croydon; Thames and Medway (1800); and River Lea Navigation (1804).  Among the works surveyed by him, but which were not carried out, were these: a canal through the Weald of Kent (1802-3); a ship-canal between the Thames and Portsmouth (1803); a ship canal between the Medway and Portsmouth (1810); a ship-canal from Chichester Harbour to Chichester (1804); and a ship-canal from Bristol to the English Channel (1811).  He was also employed by the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal Company, the Birmingham Canal Company, and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal Company, as their consulting engineer; and various important improvements in these navigations were carried out by his advice and under his superintendence.

p.281-2

Ed.―the Lune Aqueduct, completed in 1797, carries the Lancaster Canal over the River Lune to the east of the City of Lancaster. One of Rennie's finest works, the aqueduct is classical in style with rusticated masonry and curved wingwalls, and is over 600ft long—unsurprisingly it has a Grade I preservation listing. But Smiles fails to mention that the Canal had an unfortunate history, which can be attributed to the Lune Aqueduct..

    Rennie surveyed a route from Wigan and Preston to Kendal, during 1791, mapping out a fine example of a 'contour' canal (one that follows the lie of the land and does not need locks). Construction of the Lune Aqueduct was commenced in 1794 ahead of the building of the canal that connected to it. But at £48K its construction proved so expensive that there was no money left to build the matching aqueduct over the River Ribble at Preston necessary to connect to the national canal network. Thus the Lancaster Canal remained in splendid isolation for over 200 years. It did, however, provide a waterway between Preston and Tewitfield, which was later extended north to Kendal (1819), while a short branch to Glasson Dock was opened (1826) to carry the canal down to the sea via a flight of locks.

    Declining traffic during the 1950s led to the Canal being partly abandoned. Today only the section from Preston to Tewitfield near Carnforth—42 of the original 57 miles north of Preston—is open to navigation, the route north of Tewitfield having been severed by the M6 Motorway and, in places, filled in. However, in 2002 a link was opened to connect the previously isolated Canal to the rest of the national network via a canalisation of the Savick Brook. The new link skirts the outskirts of Preston and flows into the River Ribble. From there it uses the River Douglas to connect to the national network via the Leeds and Liverpool Canal's Rufford Branch.

p.285

'Journal of Royal Agricultural Society,' 1847, vol. viii. p.124.

p.287

A writer in an old number of the 'Universal Magazine' (published in 1773) describes a conversation with a cadaverous-looking man whom he encountered in the Fens, and condoled with on his forlorn and meagre appearance.  The man rejoined, that he had never been better since he had buried the first of his nine wives.  "Nine wives?"  "Yes, nine wives!" was the reply.  The man explained that the Fen men were accustomed to seek their wives in the upland country, selecting those who had a little money; and as living in the Fens was certain death to strangers during the fever season, many of the Fen men thus contrived to accumulate a good deal of money.  But the Fen districts have long since ceased to possess this peculiar advantage, for they are now as healthy as the upland districts themselves.

p.294

Report, dated the 7th of April, 1800.

p.296-1

See the Map in vol. i. of the 'Fens as Drained in 1830;' p.51.

p.296-2

Ed.—the Witham Navigable Drains are located in Lincolnshire, and are part of a much larger drainage system managed by the Witham Fourth District Internal Drainage Board.  In total there are over 438 miles of drainage ditches, of which under 60 miles are navigable.  Navigation is normally only possible in the summer months, as the drains are maintained at a lower level in winter, and are subject to sudden changes in level as a result of their primary drainage function, which can leave boats stranded.  Access to the drains is from the River Witham at Anton's Gowt Lock.

p.297

The following letter, written by a Lincolnshire gentleman, in January, 1807, appears in the 'Farmer's Magazine' of February in that year:—"Our fine drainage works begin now to show themselves, and in the end will do great credit to Mr. Rennie, the engineer, as being the most complete drainage that ever was made in Lincolnshire, and perhaps in England.  I have been a commissioner in many drainages, but the proprietors never would suffer us to raise money sufficient to dig deep enough through the old enclosures into the sea before; and, notwithstanding the excellency of Mr. Rennie's plan, we have a party of uninformed people, headed by a little parson and magistrate, who keep publishing letters in the newspapers to stop the work, and have actually petitioned Sir Joseph Banks, the lord of the manor, against it; but he answered them with a refusal, in a most excellent way . . . . I think Mr. Rennie's great work will promote another general improvement here, which is, to deepen and enlarge the river Witham from the sea, through Boston and Lincoln to the Trent, so as to admit of a communication for large vessels, as well as laying the water so much below the surface of the land as to do away with the engines.  We have got an estimate, and find the cost may be about £100,000."

p.299

Mr. Bower's estimate was as follows:—

p.300

In his admirable Report dated the 6th October, 1800, Mr. Rennie pointed out that the lines of direction in which the rivers Welland and Witham entered the Wash tended to the silting-up of the channels of both, and he suggested that the two river outlets should be united in one, and diverted into the centre of the Wash, at Clayhole, which would at the same time greatly increase the depth, and enable a large area of valuable land to be reclaimed for agricultural purposes.  This suggestion has since been elaborated by Sir John Rennie*, whose plan of 1837, when fully carried out, will have the effect of greatly improving the outfalls of all the rivers entering the great Wash—the Ouse, the Nene, the Welland, and the Witham—and the drainage of the low level lands depending upon them, comprising above a million of acres, and ultimately gaining from the Wash between 150,000 and 200,000 acres of rich new land, or equal to the area of a good-sized county. In the Wash of the Nene, called Sutton Wash, 4000 acres have already been reclaimed after this plan—the land, formerly washed by the sea at every tide, being now covered with rich cornfields and comfortable farmsteads.  It was at this point that King John's army was nearly destroyed when crossing the sands before the advancing tide.

* Ed.—Sir John Rennie (1794-1874) was the second son of engineer John Rennie and brother of George Rennie.

p.301

Among other important works of the same kind executed by Mr. Rennie, but which it would be tedious to describe in detail, was the reclamation (in 1807) of 23,000 acres of fertile land in the district of Holderness, near Hull.  He was extensively employed to embank lands exposed to the sea, and succeeded (in 1812) in effectually protecting the thirty miles of coast extending from Wainfleet to Boston, and thence to the mouths of the rivers Welland and Glen.  Two ears later (in 1814) he, in like manner, furnished a plan, which was carried out, for protecting the Earl of Lonsdale's valuable marsh land on the south shore of the Solway Frith.

p.305

Thompson's 'History of Boston,' 1856, p. 639.

p.308

Dr. Robison was the first contributor to the 'Encyclopedia' who was really a man of science, and whose articles were above the rank of mere compilations.  He sought information from all quarters—searched the works of foreign writers, and consulted men of practical eminence, such as Rennie, to whom he could obtain access—and hence an extraordinary value was imparted to his articles.

p.312

The great arch of 450 feet was to be supported on two stone piers, each 75 feet thick, the springing to be 100 feet above high water.  There were to be arches of stone on the Caernarvon side to the distance of about 156 yards, and on the Anglesea side to the distance of about 284 yards, making the total length of the bridge, exclusive of the wing walls, about 640 yards.  The estimated cost of the whole work and approaches was £268,500.  The point at which the bridge was recommended to be thrown across was, either opposite Inys-y-Moch island, on which one of the main piers would rest, or at the Swilly rocks, about 800 yards to the eastward; but, on the whole, he preferred the latter site.  He also sent in a subsequent design, showing an iron arch on each side of the main one of 350 feet span, in lieu of masonry, with other modifications, by which the dimensions of the main piers were reduced, and the estimate somewhat lessened.  Other plans were prepared and submitted, embodying somewhat similar views, the prominent idea in all of them being the spanning of the Straits by a great cast-iron arch, the crown of which was to be 150 feet above the sea at high water.  The plans and evidence on the subject are to be found set forth in the 'Reports from Committees of the House of Commons on Holyhead Roads' (1810-22), ordered to be printed 25th July, 1822.

p.313

John Rennie designed Boston's first "Town Bridge", in one arch of cast iron of 86 feet span.  The bridge was "re-built" in 1913 to a design by John Webster—I've been unable to discover why.

p.314

Among his minor works may be mentioned the bridge over the stream which issues out of Virginia Water and crosses the Great Western Road (erected in 1805); Darlaston Bridge across the Trent, in Staffordshire (1805); the timber and iron bridge over the estuary of the Welland at Fossdyke Wash, about nine miles below Spalding (1810); the granite bridge of three arches at New Galloway, on the line of the Dumfries and Portpatrick Road (1811); a bridge of five arches across the Cree at Newton Stewart (1812); the cast-iron bridge over the Goomtee at Lucknow, erected after his designs in 1814, and frequently referred to in the military operations for the relief of that city a few years ago; Wellington Bridge, over the Aire, at Leeds (1817); Isleworth Bridge (1819); a bridge of three elliptical arches of 75 feet span each, at Bridge of tarn, Perthshire (1819); Cramond Bridge, of eight semicircular arches of 50 feet span, with the roadway 42 feet above the river (1819); and Ken Bridge, New Galloway, of five stone arches, the centre go feet span (1820).  An adventure of some peril attended Mr. Rennie's erection of the bridge at Newton Stewart.  He happened to visit the works on one occasion during a heavy flood, which swept down the valley with great fury; and the passage of the ferry was thus completely interrupted.  Mr. Rennie and his son (the present Sir John) were consequently unable to cross over to Newton Stewart.  About 11 p.m. the violence of the storm had somewhat abated, and the moon came out, though obscured by the clouds which drifted across her face.  Mr. Rennie went out at that late hour to look at the bridge works, and even to try whether he might not reach the other side by crossing the timber platform by means of which the works were being carried on.  There was a gangway of only two planks from pier to pier on the eastern side, and this he safely crossed.  The torrent was still raging furiously beneath, shaking the frail timbers of the scaffolding.  As Mr. Rennie was about to place his foot on the plank which led to the third pier, his son observed the framework tremble, and pulled his father back, just in time to see the whole swept into the stream with a tremendous crash.  Fortunately the planking still stood across which they had passed, and they succeeded in retracing their steps in safety.  The bridge was finished and opened during the summer of 1814.

p.316

In their report on this design, Mr. Rennie and his colleague observed:—"We should not have thought it necessary to quote the production of a foreign country for the sake of showing the practicability of constructing arches of 130 feet span, had we not been led to it by the exact similarity of the designs, and by the principle which is therein adopted of the compound curve; because our own country affords examples of greater boldness in the construction of arches than that of Neuilly.  There is a bridge over the river Taff, in the county of Glamorgan, of upwards of 135 feet span, with a rise not exceeding 32 feet, and what is more remarkable is, that the depth of the arch-stones is only 30 inches; so that in fact that bridge far exceeds in boldness of design that of Neuilly."  [See the Memoir of William Edwards at p. 86.]  After some observations as to the importance and necessity of making a bridge in such a situation at the bend of the river, with as large arches as possible, to accommodate the navigation and present as little obstruction as possible to the rise and fall of the water, they proceeded:—"We confess we do not wholly approve of M. Peyronnet's construction as adapted for the intended situation.  It is complicated in its form, and, we think, wanting in effect.  The equilibrium of the arches has not been sufficiently attended to; for when the centres of the bridge at Neuilly were struck, the top of the arches sank to a degree far beyond anything that has come to our knowledge, whilst the haunches retired or rose up, so that the bridge as it now stands is very different in form from what it was originally designed.  No such change of shape took place in the bridge over the Taff (Pont-y-Prydd); the sinking after the centres were struck did not amount to one-half of that at Neuilly, although the one was designed and built under the direction of the first engineer of France, without regard to expense, whilst the other was designed and built by a country mason with parsimonious economy.  Our opinion therefore is, that the arches of the bridge over the Thames should either be plain ellipses, without the slanting off in the haunches so as to deceive the eye by an apparent flatness which does not in reality exist, or they should be of a flat segment of a circle formed in such a manner as to give the requisite room for the passage of the current and barges under it."

p.317

In June, 1810, we find him accepting the direction of the new bridge at £1,000 a-year for himself and assistants, or £7 7s. a-day and expenses; but on no account were any of his people to have to do with the payment or receipt of moneys.

p.320

The coffer-dams in which the foundations of the abutments were built, were formed by driving two rows of piles 13 by 6½ inches each, with a counter or abutting pile at every 12 feet 12 by 12, driven in the form of an ellipsis, and strongly cemented together, at low-water and high-water levels, by double horizontal walings or bracks, having a space of about 8 inches clear between them for the intermediate or half piles.  The whole were driven close together from 15 to 20 feet deep into the ground, well caulked, so as to be water-tight, and all connected firmly together by strong wrought iron bars and bolts, besides shores and intermediate braces.  The spaces between the two rows of piles were then rammed close with well-tempered clay, so that they formed, as it were, a solid vat or tub impermeable to water; and within these, when pumped clear of water, the excavation was made to the proper depth, and in the space so dug out the building operations proceeded.  The cofferdams for the piers were formed in a similar manner, with modifications according to circumstances.  By this means the bed of the river, where the piers were to be erected, was exposed and dug out to the proper depth, and the foundations were commenced from a level nine feet at least below low-water mark.  The foundations there rested upon timber piles from 20 to 22 feet long, driven into the solid bed of the river.  Upon the heads of these piles half-timber planking was spiked, and on this the solid masonry was built—every stone being fitted, mortared, and laid with studious accuracy and precision.  The whole work was done with such solidity that, after the lapse of fifty years, the foundations have not yielded by a straw's breadth at any point.

p.326

Ed.—Rennie's bridge was indeed "a noble work", its elegant style blending comfortably with that of the adjacent Somerset House.  The Italian sculptor Canova described it as “the finest bridge in all Europe”—but Smiles's prediction that it was "built for posterity" was not to be.    From the early 1880's serious problems were found in the bridge's piers caused by scour from the increased river flow following the removal of the old London Bridge (ironically, to be replaced by a bridge designed by Rennie). By the 1920s the problems had become serious.  Heavy superstructure was removed and temporary reinforcements put in place, but the remedy proved unsuccessful and the bridge was closed to traffic in 1924. After much debate it was decided eventually to replace Rennie's  bridge with the functional but austere Portland stone-clad structure (completed in 1945 to a design by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott) which stands today.

    Rennie's Waterloo Bridge was built for the 'Strand Bridge Company'.  Opened in 1817 as a toll bridge, the toll was removed in 1878 when the bridge was taken over by the Metropolitan Board of Works.  Despite the toll, it soon gained a reputation as a popular jump for suicides, as is depicted in Thomas Hood's famous poem, "The Bridge of Sighs" (illustrated below by Gustav Doré) . . . .

p.334

Article on Iron Bridges in 'Encyclopedia Britannica.'

Ed.—Rennie’s Southwark Bridge was said to be ‘unrivalled as regards its colossal proportions, its architectural effects and the general simplicity and massive character of its details’.  Alas, as with his two other great Thames bridges, Rennie's Southwark Bridge was not to be, as Smiles's put it (with regard to Waterloo Bridge),"built for posterity".  An increase in traffic followed the removal of the tolls in 1868, to the extent that by the end of the 19th century it had become apparent that Rennie's bridge was too narrow to cope with the volume, and that a broader bridge with better approach roads was needed.  Demolition of Rennie's fine bridge began in 1913, but with World War I intervening the existing bridge was not completed until 1921.

p.335

The following is the tradition as given by an old writer:—"By the east of the Isle of May, twelve miles from all land in the German Sea, lyes a great hidden rock called Inchcape, very dangerous to the navigators, because it is overflowed every tide.  It is reported that, in old times, there was upon the said rock a bell, fixed upon a tree or timber, which rang continually, being moved by the sea, giving notice to the saylors of the danger.  This bell or clocke was put there by the Abbot of Aberbrothock, and, being taken down by a sea-pirate, a yeare thereafter he perished upon the same rock, with ship and goodes, by the righteous judgment of God."  (Stoddart's 'Remarks on Scotland.')

p.337

'Fragments of Voyages and Travels,' i. 15-16. Edinburgh, 1831.

p.338

Baron Dupin in his 'Commercial Power of Great Britain,' says:—"Several engineers submitted plans; but, by the advice of Mr. Rennie, the model and dimensions of the Eddystone Lighthouse were adopted with the improvements in lighting, which the recent progress in optics allowed him to make." (ii. 159.)

p.341

A detailed account of the operations was afterwards published by the assistant-engineer, in his interesting work entitled 'An Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse.' By Robert Stevenson, Civil Engineer.  Edinburgh, 1824.

p.343

Ed.—"So soon as a barrack of timber-work could be erected on the rock as a substitute for the floating light, it was inhabited by Mr. Stevenson and twenty-eight men.  This barrack was a singular habitation, perched on a strong framework of timber, carefully designed with a view to strength, and no less carefully put together in its place, and fixed to the rock with every appliance necessary to secure stability.  The tide rose sixteen feet on it in calm weather, and in heavy seas it was exposed to the assault of every wave." (Life of Robert Stevenson, Civil Engineer, by David Stevenson.  Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh, 1878.)

p.347

Letter dated the 12th March, 1814.  Boulton MSS.

p.350

Ed.—the Bell Rock Lighthouse is maintained by the Northern Lighthouse Board who publish the following details:—

p.351

The correspondence which took place on the subject will be found recorded in the 'Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal,' Vol. xii., 1849.


Ed.—controversy continues to surround the question of who should be credited with the design of this fine (and the world's oldest water-washed) lighthouse.  It's interesting to note that the Northern Lighthouse Board website makes no mention of Rennie's contribution, while in the episode featuring the Bell Rock Lighthouse in the BBC Television docudrama series, "Seven Wonders of the Industrial World", his role in its construction (and rather at variance with his track record) is portrayed as one of meddling interference.  However, while Stevenson undoubtedly carried the weight of the engineering and much of the lighthouse's design, the evidence suggests that fellow Scot Rennie's prudent design decisions —which Stevenson saw fit to accept—ensured that the Bell Rock's basic structure conformed closely with Smeaton's time-proven concepts for the Eddystone.

    Robert Stevenson F.R.S.E. (1772-1850)—not to be confused with Robert Stephenson—became a notable civil engineer specialising in lighthouse construction but also undertaking a range of other civil engineering projects (see . . .  Robert Stevenson, Civil Engineer, by David Stevenson, pub. Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh, 1878, a copy of which is available online at The Internet Text Archive.

p.352

The increase in the trade of London is exhibited by the following abstract of vessels entered at the port at different periods since the beginning of last century:—

p.356-1

2 George I I I., cap. 28.

p.356-2

P. Colquhoun, LL.D., 'Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis.' [6th Ed., 237.]

p.358

Mr. Jessop was among the most eminent engineers of his day.  His father was engaged under Smeaton in the building of the Eddystone Lighthouse; and, dying in 1761, he left the guardianship of his family to Mr. Smeaton, who adopted William as his pupil, and carefully brought him up to the same profession.  Jessop continued with Smeaton for about ten years; and, after leaving him, he was engaged successively on the Aire and Calder, the Calder and Hebble, and the Trent Navigations.  He also executed the Cromford and the Nottingham Canals; the Loughborough and Leicester, and the Horncastle Navigations; but the most extensive and important of his works of this kind was the Grand Junction Canal, by which the whole of the north-western inland navigation of the kingdom was brought into direct connection with the metropolis.  He was also employed as engineer for the Caledonian Canal, in which he was succeeded by Telford, who carried out the work.  Mr. Jessop was the engineer of the West India Docks (1800-2), and of the Bristol Docks (1803-8), both works of great importance.  He was the first engineer employed to lay out and construct railroads, as a branch of his profession; the Croydon and Merstham Railroad, worked by donkeys and mules, having been constructed by him as early as 1803.  He also laid down short railways in connection with his canals in Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Nottinghamshire. During the later years of his life he was much afflicted by paralysis, and died in 1814.

p.361

For further particulars as to these docks see Sir John Rennie's 'British and Foreign Harbours.' Art. "London Docks."

p.363

Among the improvements adopted by Mr. Rennie in these docks may be mentioned the employment of cast iron, then an altogether novel expedient, for the roofing of the sheds.  One of these, erected by him in 1813, was 1300 feet long and 29 feet 6 inches in span, supported on cast-iron columns 71 inches in diameter at bottom and 53/4 at top.  Another, still more capacious, of 54 feet clear span between the supports, was erected by him over the mahogany warehouses in 1817.  He also introduced an entirely new description of iron cranes, first employing wheelwork in connection with them, by which they worked much more easily and at a great increase of power.  He entirely re-arranged the working of the mahogany sheds, greatly to the despatch of business and the economy of labour.  His quick observation enabled him to point out new and improved methods of despatching work, even to those who were daily occupied in the docks, but whose eyes had probably become familiar with hurry scurry and confusion.

p.366

The Prince's Dock at Liverpool was constructed after Mr. Rennie's plans; but the greater part of the dock accommodation at that port was provided under the direction of the late Mr. Jesse Hartley.  Mr. Hartley was a native of the North Riding of Yorkshire, where his father held the position of Bridgemaster; and his son, after receiving an ordinary education, served his apprenticeship as a stonemason, and worked at the building of Boroughbridge.  Subsequently, he succeeded his father as Bridgemaster, which he continued to retain, until his removal to Liverpool, when he received the appointment of engineer to the Dock Committee.  During the period in which he held the office of dock engineer, Mr. Hartley altered or entirely constructed every dock belonging to the town.  He was also engineer to the Bolton and Manchester Railway and Canal, and consulting engineer for the Dee Bridge at Chester, the centering for which was considered a triumph of engineering skill and ability.

p.367

See Sir John Rennie's 'British and Foreign Harbours;' Art, "Aberdeen."

p.368

Mr. Rennie proposed to form two docks on the Broomielaw side of the river—one 1350 feet long and 160 feet wide, with two entrances, and another 900 feet long and 200 feet wide; with a third dock upon the Windmill Croft, on the south side of the river, 300 feet long and 200 feet wide; the whole presenting a total length of quayage of 6120 feet, besides a river quay wall 1150 feet long.  This magnificent plan, proposed more than half a century since, viewed by the experience of this day, shows how clearly Rennie anticipated the commercial growth and manufacturing prosperity of Glasgow, for which these projected docks would have afforded ample accommodation, at an estimated capital cost (at the time the plans were made) of only £130,000.   What would not Glasgow give now to have the benefit of Rennie's docks?   Indeed it is remarkable that, to this day, so little has been done to realise his idea, and to provide dock accommodation for the trade of the Clyde, which is now quite as much needed as the same kind of accommodation was in the Thames at the beginning of the present century.

p.370

The occasion on which this plan was first recommended was in Mr. Rennie's report (1793) on the Hutchison Bridge across the Clyde.  That bridge, erected by another engineer, fell down on the removal of the centres, on which Mr. Rennie was sent for, post haste, by the Lord Provost and magistrates of Glasgow, to confer with them on the subject; and his advice as to the rebuilding of the bridge on another site was subsequently adopted.  It appeared, from an inspection of the ruined piers, that a breast or quay wall had been built on the south side of the river, and to the west of the bridge, which had not been executed according to contract.  The report stated:—"The above walls should be enlarged in their dimensions and altered in their construction; they ought to be carried at least to the level of the river bed, and made five feet thick at the base next to the bridge, and four feet thick at the top, battering one-fifth of their height in a curvilinear form, the beds of the stones being radiated to the centre of the curve; as the height lessens, the dimensions of the walls may be diminished in the same proportion, and, if built as above described, I have no doubt of the works being permanent."

p.375-1

It will be remembered that the 'Great Eastern' was nearly wrecked in consequence of the bad holding-ground within the new harbour in the year 1859.

Ed.—A letter was received by the Corporation from Mr. H. Yeo, Secretary to the Commissioners of Howth Harbour, requesting the Corporation to consider Mr. John Rennie’s plan of the proposed lighthouse to be erected at the end of the East Pier to direct vessels into the entrance of the harbour. . . .Mr. Rennie stated that the light intended was to be a steady red and consequently a distinguishing light. . . . The fixed red light was established on 1st July 1818, it compromised twelve Argand lamps with red lamp glasses and silvered copper catoptric reflectors. . . . The cut stone tower is very similar to the tower designed by John Rennie and established about the same time at Salt Island, Holyhead Harbour. The overall height of tower lantern and dome is approximately 14.5m (from website of The Commissioners of Irish Lights).

p.376-1

Mr. Rennie's plan of Kingstown Harbour consisted of two piers of four arms each carried out from the shore 3700 feet distant from each other, their heads inclined inwards at an angle of 122 degrees, and terminating in a depth of 26 feet at low water of spring tides.  The width between the outer angles of the two outer arms of the pier was 1150 feet, the entrance pointing N.E. ½ E.  The total space enclosed was 250 acres.  The works were commenced in 1817, the first stone being laid by the Earl of Whitworth, the Lord Lieutenant; and the works were still in progress at Mr. Rennie's death in 1821.  The harbour subsequently fell under the jurisdiction of the Irish Board of Works, and all sorts of new plans were adopted at variance with the original design of Mr. Rennie, in carrying out which it is to be feared that the harbour has been seriously injured.

p.376-2

This dock is 900 feet long by 370 wide.  It covers a surface of 7½ acres, and is capable of holding about seventy sail of square-rigged vessels. The entrance lock communicating with the tidal harbour opening into the Humber is 42 feet wide and 158 feet long between the gates, with the cill laid 6 feet below low water of spring tides.

p.376-3

Ed.—Harwich Low Lighthouse, located on the North Sea promenade off the Harbour Crescent, is a 45ft high, ten-sided brick tower with a projecting canopy at ground level.  Harwich High Lighthouse, located at the south end of West Street, is a nine-sided tower of grey brickwork, 90ft high, being 20ft 6in wide at the base and tapering to a 13ft-wide top capped in stone and decorated with an urn. It contains seven floor levels and is now a private home.  Both lighthouses—positioned some 150 meters apart—were built in 1818 to replace earlier wooded structures (one of the latter being famously depicted by the landscape artist, John Constable).  They acted as a pair of "leading lights", which when in transit (i.e. one appearing vertically above the other) provided shipping with a line of entry into the harbour channel.  However, due to the changing course of the channel the lights became redundant in 1863 and were replaced with a newly-positioned pair of lights housed in cast iron towers.

p.379

It would occupy much space to mention in detail the various harbours in the United Kingdom which Mr Rennie was employed to examine, report upon, and improve; but the following summary may suffice:—In England he examined and reported on Rye Harbour (1801); Dover (1802); Hastings projected Harbour (1806); Berwick, where he constructed the fine pier at the mouth of the Tweed, 2740 feet in length ( 1807); Margate Harbour (carried out 1808); Liverpool Docks, on which he made an elaborate report (1809); North Sunderland (1809); Shoreham (1810); Newhaven (1810); Harbour of Refuge in the Downs, north of Sandown Castle, on which he made a careful report (1812); Prince's Dock, Liverpool, of which he furnished the designs (1812); Bridlington (1812); Sidmouth (1812); Rye, a second report (1813); Blyth (1814); Ramsey, Isle of Man (1814); Port Leven, Mount's Bay, Cornwall (1814); Bridgewater (1814); Whitehaven (1814); Scarborough (1816); the improvement of the navigation of the river Tyne (1816); Yarmouth (1818); Fishguard, Wales (1819); Kidwelly, Wales (1820); and Sunderland (1821).  He also suggested various improvements, many of which were carried out, in the following harbours of Scotland, besides those above mentioned: Loch Buy, Isle of Skye (1793); Port Mahomack, near Tarbet Ness (1793); Kirkcudbright and Saltcoats (1799); Craigmore, near Boroughstoness (1804); Montrose (1805); Ayr, where the improvements recommended by him were carried out (1805); Peterhead (1806); Frazerburgh, only partially carried out (1806); Charleston (1807); Alloa (1808); St. Andrew's ( 1808); Portnessock, Galloway (1813); Ardrossan (1811 and 1815); and Portpatrick (1819).  In like manner he was consulted, and reported, as to the following Irish harbours:—Westport (1805); Ardinglass (1809); Dublin (1811); Balbriggan (1818); Donaghadee (1819); and Belfast (1821).  He was also consulted respecting dry docks at Malta (1815), and a harbour and docks at Bermuda (1815).

p.381

From the following brief description it will be observed how skilfully he carried out these views in laying out the intended harbour at Charleston.  He proposed to construct two great piers, one placed at the western extremity of the little inlet, to which a railway was being laid down—the straight part extending outwards about 154 yards, from which there were to be two kants of about 64 yards each, the
last going 57 yards below low-water mark.  From thence there was to be a return bend about 70 yards long, in a direction considerably to the north of east.  At 50 yards from the extremity of this pier, another of the same length was proposed to be made, forming an angle with it of about 120 degrees, with two other kants similar to the former, and a larger one extending to the shore the entrance being 50 yards wide, and the outer arm or kant of the east pier making an angle of 120 degrees with it, so that both the outer arms made similar kants with each other.  A large space would thus be enclosed, which, he believed, would make a very commodious and capacious harbour.  "By the above construction," he says in his report, "though it may seem that its exposure will admit of the swells from the south and south-west getting into the harbour, yet when it is considered that the angle at which a wave will strike the Heads will occasion a rebound in a similar angle to that in which it is struck, and as this will be the case from each Head, it follows that these reflected waves, meeting each other, will occasion a resistance which will have the effect of preventing a considerable part of the sea-wave from entering the harbour, and what does enter it will expend its fury on the flat beach within, and soon become quiet."  This might, he added, be in a great measure prevented by extending the pier-heads further seaward, but which the large additional expense precluded him from recommending; and, indeed, there would always be abundant shelter for the shipping under one or other of the pier heads.  Besides, as the Frith was only about two miles wide at the place, the probability was that there would be no such heavy seas as to render so expensive a measure necessary.  The plan was, however, carried out to only a limited extent, and we merely quote the report because of the valuable principles to be observed in the construction of harbours, which are here so clearly enunciated.

p.383

See Life of Smeaton. p. 186.

p.391-1

See Descriptive View of Romney Marsh, vol. i. p.5.

p.391-2

Ed.—Smiles fails to mention that building the Royal Military Canal proved a very  unsatisfactory project, and although it did acquire an important role, this had neither military nor commercial purpose.

    The contract to build the canal was let to a consortium of sub-contractors with whose work Rennie was familiar, and work commenced on 30th October 1804.  Considering that this was the age of manual labour, that 22½ miles (of the 28) had to be dug by hand, that the Canal was wider and deeper (60 feet wide by 9 feet deep) than most navigation canals, that it was to have flanking drains and a 30 feet wide military road protected by a rampart, the contract completion date of June 1805 (less than eight months) seems amazingly unrealistic; and such it proved to be.  In March 1805 Rennie wrote 'In respect to the contractors, I am sorry to say they have greatly disappointed my expectations, founded upon the diligence and accuracy with which I have seen other great works done by them'.  The contract was dogged by a severe labour shortage added to which were problems with the excavations flooding.  At a meeting on 6 June, five days after the works ought to have been completed, only 6 miles had been constructed.  The consortium were dismissed from the contract and the military took over the work.  Following the battle of Trafalgar (21 October, 1805) the threat of French invasion diminished, nevertheless work pressed on to completion in 1809.

    Following the Napoleonic War the Canal assumed a minor commercial role, but was eventually abandoned by the Government in 1877, being leased to the Lords of the Level of Romney Marsh.  During the early years of WWII, when invasion appeared imminent, the Canal again assumed military importance as an anti-invasion ditch and was fortified with pillboxes.

    Today, much of the Canal is managed by the Environment Agency (Shepway District Council manage the rest) who use it to manage water levels over  the surrounding marshland where it provides a source of irrigation during periods of drought and a vital flood defence at other times. It is a popular destination for walkers (its full length being open to the public) and anglers, and a haven for wildlife, part being designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest.

p.391-3

Mr. Rennie seems to have been frequently in communication with the military authorities of the day on warlike matters.  Thus, in 1809, he was applied to for a gang of workmen to proceed to Flushing, during the unfortunate Walcheren expedition, to assist in destroying the piers, floodgates, and basins of that port; after effecting which they returned home.

p.392

Mr. Rennie had a very mean opinion of Fulton, regarding him as a quack who traded upon the inventions of others.  He considered that little merit belonged to him in regard to the invention of the steamboat.  Thus, Jonathan Hulls, Miller of Dalswinton, and Symington had been at work upon the invention long before Fulton.  Fulton's alleged invention of cast-iron bridges was not more original.  Writing to Mr. Barrow of the Admiralty, in 1817, Mr. Rennie says:—"I send you Mr. Fulton's book on Canals, published in 1796, when he was in England, and previous to his application of the steam-engine to the working of wheels in boats.  On the designs (as to bridges, &c.) contained in that book, his fame, I believe, principally rests; although he acknowledges that Earl Stanhope had previously proposed similar plans, and that Mr. Reynolds of Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, had actually carried them into execution; so that all the merit he has—if merit it may be called—is a proposal for extending the principle previously applied in this country.  The first iron bridge was erected at Coalbrookdale in 1779, and between that and the publication of Fulton's book in 1796 many others were erected; so that, in this department, he has little to boast of.  I consider Fulton with whom I was personally acquainted, a man of very slender abilities, though possessing much self-confidence and consummate impudence."

p.393

The quarantine establishment of the port of London was then situated at Stangate Creek, which joins the Medway about two miles above Sheerness.  It consisted of several old two and three-decker hulks, into which goods were placed.  Passengers while performing quarantine might well fret and fume at their detention, having before them a most uninteresting prospect—a wide extent of flat marshland, with a fringe of mud at low water.  A small vessel of war was stationed at the entrance of the creek to prevent infringement of the regulations.  The annoyance caused by this establishment was very great, and it was more and more complained of as our foreign commerce extended.  On several occasions, vessels filled with passengers, having accidentally run foul of the the ships performing quarantine, were compelled at once to heave-to, and undergo two or three days' detention before they could be released.  To diminish this evil, the Government determined to erect a permanent quarantine establishment about three miles up Stangate Creek, at a place called Chetney Hill, a small rising ground situated in the marshes.  It was proposed to isolate this hill by a canal, provided with a lock; and Mr. Rennie was requested to prepare the requisite plans, which he did (in 1806), and the works were executed at a heavy expense; but we believe they were never used, and the old hulks continued to be employed until the final abandonment of the quarantine system.

p.396

By way of illustrating his views, Mr. Rennie used to say:—"Let any stranger visit Portsmouth Dockyard, the head establishment of the British Navy, he will be astonished at the vastness and number of buildings, and perhaps say, 'What a wonderful place it is!' knowing nothing about the subject.  But I can compare the place to nothing else than to a pack of cards, with the names of different buildings, docks, &c., marked upon them, and then tossed up into the air, so that each, in falling, might find its place by chance,—so completely are they devoid of all arrangement and order."

p.400

The site of the proposed arsenal was the flat portion of land near Northfleet, about eight hundred acres in extent, lying in the angular space formed by Fidlers' and Northfleet Reaches.  Its depth close to the shore was about seven fathoms at low water, or sufficient for vessels of the largest burden.  The main entrance-lock was to be at the Northfleet end of the docks, within which was to be an entrance-basin 1,815 feet long and 600 feet wide, covering about twenty-five acres.  Dry docks were to be placed conveniently near, from which the water was to be pumped by powerful steam-engines, so that vessels might be docked directly from the basin, and have their bottoms examined with the least loss of time.  Part of the entrance-basin was to be appropriated for an anchor-wharf, another for a gun-wharf; next the stores and victualling wharves, with their appropriate buildings; the whole arranged on a system, so that the materials required on shipboard might be passed forward to their respective wharves from one stage of preparation to another, with the greatest despatch and economy.  At the north end of the basin were to be the mast and boat ponds, with their adjoining workshops, connected also with the Thames and the main western basin by separate entrances.  The main western basin was to be at right angles to the entrance-basin, 4,000 feet long and 950 feet wide, covering a surface of about eighty acres.  Alongside were to be six dry docks and eight building slips, all fitted in the most complete manner with the requisite saw-pits, seasoning-sheds, mould-lofts, timber stores, and smitheries, conveniently situated in the rear.  The whole of the heavy work, such as bellows-blowing, tilt-hammering, forging of anchors, and iron-rolling, was to be performed by the aid of steam-engines and machinery of the most perfect kind.  Seventy sail of the line, with a proportionate number of smaller vessels, might conveniently lie in this basin, and yet afford abundant space for the launching of new vessels.  Another basin, 980 feet long and 500 feet wide, was proposed for timber-ships, on the south-west extremity of the great basin, with a separate entrance into the Thames a little below Greenhithe.  The whole of the arsenal was to be connected together by a system of railways extending to every part and all round the wharves.  The plan was most complete, some of the details being highly ingenious.  But the cost of executing the work was the real difficulty; Mr. Rennie's estimate of the total outlay requisite to complete the Works amounting to four millions and-a-half sterling.  Yet the plan was so masterly and comprehensive, and so obviously the right thing to be done, that the Portland Administration determined to carry it out, and the necessary land was bought for the purpose.  Frequent changes of Ministry, however, took place at the time; the resources of the country were heavily taxed in carrying on the war against Napoleon in Spain; the public attention was diverted in other quarters; and no further steps were taken to carry out Mr. Rennie's design.  He knocked at the door of one Administration after another without effect.  In 1810 we find him writing to Lord Mulgrave, the First Lord; to the Right Hon. George Rose; to the Earl St. Vincent, and others; but though the more the plans were scrutinised, the more indisputable did their merits appear, he could find no Ministry strong enough to carry them out.  When peace came, Government and people were alike sick of wars, naval armaments, and glorious victories; and believing that all danger from France was at an end,—the French fleet having been destroyed or captured, and Napoleon banished to St. Helena,—it was supposed that the old royal harbours, patched and cobbled up, might answer every purpose.  So the land at Northfleet was sold, and the whole subject dismissed from the public mind.  But, after the lapse of half a century, the wisdom of Mr. Rennie's advice has become more clearly apparent even than before.  For years past, the waste in our dockyards, which it was the chief object of his Northfleet design to prevent, has become one of the principal topics of public discussion, and it has been the standing opprobrium of every successive Naval Administration.  What Mr. Rennie urged fifty years since still holds as true as ever —that without concentration economy is impossible.  So long as Government goes on tinkering at the old dockyards, spending enormous sums of money in the vain attempt to render them severally efficient, and maintaining separate expensive staffs in so many different places,—building a ship in one yard and sending it round the island to another, perhaps more than a hundred miles distant, to be finished and fitted, and then to another to take its guns, stores, &c.,—so long shall we have increasing reason to complain of the frightful waste of public money in the royal dockyards.

p.417

The propriety of this arrangement was proved by the fact, that whereas the price paid in 1812 for taking and depositing rubble in the Breakwater was 2s. 9d. per ton, it was afterwards reduced to 1s. per ton, as the contractors and workmen became better acquainted with the nature of the work.

p.420

The largest quantity of stone deposited in one year was in 1821, when not less than 373,773 tons were quarried, lightened, and emptied into the work.

p.423-1

These were Mr. Telford, Mr. Josias Jessop, Sir J. Rennie, and Mr. G. Rennie.  For more full particulars as to the history and construction of the Breakwater, we refer the reader to Sir John Rennie's elaborate work, entitled, 'An Historical, Practical, and Theoretical Account of the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound.'  London, 1848.

p.423-2

The slopes were paved. with blocks of the largest stone, firmly wedged together; the centre line was removed 36 feet further seawards; the top width was reduced 5 feet; a strong binding course of dovetailed granite masonry was built at the bottom of the sea slope, which was laid one foot convex from the bottom to the top; whilst the land slope was laid with close-fitting rubble at the inclination of 2 to 1.  It was, however, found, in the course of the work, that the rough paving of the rubble alone was scarcely strong enough to withstand the violence of the waves without a certain degree of yielding; and Sir J. Rennie, having been consulted by the Admiralty, recommended that, in addition to the granite basement binding course, there should be another similar course both in the centre and at the top of the sea slope; and that the remainder should be paved with rough-dressed limestone ashlar, set in courses at right angles to the slope, about three feet deep on the average—each course binding well with the one adjacent,—the lower parts of the granite bonding courses being laid level, but the upper parts forming part of the slope.  It was still found that there was a difficulty in preventing the outer edge or base of the sea slope, where the main lower granite bonding courses were placed, from being undermined by the waves; and it was determined to place a trenching or foreshore on the outside of the sea slope, 40 feet wide in the centre of the Breakwater, increasing to 50 feet wide at the commencement of the western arm, and diminishing towards the eastern arm to the width of only 30 feet.  This foreshore was about 2 feet above the level of low water of spring tides next to the toe or base; and the surface was roughly paved with rubble well wedged together.  The whole of the slope was paved with well-dressed courses of ashlar masonry without mortar, 3 feet 6 inches deep, well bedded down upon the rubble below.  The extremity of the western arm was furnished with a solid head of circular masonry, 75 feet diameter at the top, with slopes of 5 to 1 all round.  At the point at which the lighthouse has since been placed, an inverted arch of solid blocks was formed, the whole well-bonded, dovetailed, and dowelled together, and firmly united with the other parts of the solid rock.  These works answered admirably, and Plymouth Breakwater now rests as firm as a rock upon the bottom of the sea.

p.427

In 1817, his fame having gone abroad as the most skilled water engineer of the day, Captain Dufour of Geneva, came to England for the purpose of consulting him as to the extension and improvement of the waterworks of that city.  Captain Dufour was introduced to Mr. Rennie by the mutual friend of both, the eminent Dr. Wollaston.  Mr. Rennie made a careful and detailed report on the surveys and plans submitted to him, especially on the engine and pumping machinery of the proposed works; and his advice was followed, very much to the advantage of the citizens of Geneva.

p.430

Captain Huddart died at his house in Highbury Terrace, London, in 1816, closing a life of unblemished integrity in the seventy-fifth year of his age.

p.432-1

Letter to the Admiralty, 22nd May, 1820.

p.432-2

Mr. Rennie was engaged for many years in urging the introduction of steam power in the Royal Navy.  In 1817 we find him writing to Lord Melville, Sir J. Yorke, Sir D. Milne, and others on the subject.  It would appear that Lord Melville had declared that he was determined to employ steam-vessels as tugs, so soon as he could convince the Sea Lords of their advantages; on which Mr. Rennie compliments Sir D. Milne, saying that he is "glad to find that there is one admiral in the navy favourable to steamboats."  In July 1818, he laments that he cannot convince Sir G. Hope or Mr. Secretary Yorke of their utility, but that he is persuaded their adoption must come at last.  On the 30th May, 1820, he writes James Watt, of Birmingham, informing him that the Admiralty had at last decided upon having a steamboat, notwithstanding the strong resistance of the Navy Board.  "My reasons," he says, "I understand were satisfactory; but unless the Admiralty cram it down the throats of the Navy Board, nothing will be done; for of all the ignorant, obstinate, and stupid boards under the Crown, the Navy Board is the worst.  I am so disgusted with them that, could I at the present moment with decency relinquish the works under them which I have in hand, I would do so at once."

p.438

The new bridge was erected about thirty yards higher up the river than the old one, and involved the construction of new approaches on both sides.  The first coffer-dam was put in on the Southwark side, and the first pile was driven on the 15th of March, 1824; the foundation stone was laid with great ceremony by H.R.H. the Duke of York, on the 15th of June, 1825, assisted by the Lord Mayor (Garrett), the Aldermen, and Common Council.  The bridge was finally completed and formally opened by His Majesty King William the Fourth, on the 1st of August, 1831—the time occupied in its construction having been seven years and three months.  The total cost of the bridge and approaches was about two millions sterling.  All the masonry below low water is composed of hard sand-stone grit, from Bramley Fall, near Leeds; and the whole of the exterior masonry above low water is of the finest hard gray granite, from Aberdeen, Devonshire, and Cornwall.  The actual width of the arches as executed is as follows: the centre arch is 152 feet 6 inches span; the two arches next the centre are 140 feet; and the two land arches 130 feet.  The details of construction of the coffer-dams, piers, and floating and fixing the centres, were similar to those adopted by Mr. Rennie in building Waterloo and Southwark bridges.  The total length of the bridge is 1,005 feet; width from outside to outside, 56 feet; width of the footpaths, 18 feet; and of the carriage-way, 35 feet.  The total quantity of stone built into the bridge is 120,000 tons.  The builders were Messrs. Joliffe and Banks, the greatest contractors of their day.

p.441

The Digue is of considerably greater extent than the breakwater at Plymouth, being above 2¼ English miles long. Up to the time of Mr. Rennie's visit, the work had been a series of attempts and failures, which, however, eventually produced experience, and led to success. Wooden cones filled with small stones were first tried; they were sunk so as to form a sea rampart; but the cones were shattered to pieces by the force of the waves, and the stones were scattered about in the bottom of the sea. Then loose rubble-stones were tried; but the blocks were too small, and these, too, were driven asunder. Larger blocks were then used; but, for a time, the smaller stones beneath acted as rollers to the larger ones.  At length, however, these found their bearing, and when Mr. Rennie visited the place, the slope formed by the sea-ridge of rubble was as much as 11 to 1.  This greatly increased the contents of the breakwater, while its stability was not much to be depended on.  Many accidents occurred to the work, and several extensive breaches were made through it by the force of the sea.  At low water the height of the Digue was at some parts only three feet; at others, considerably more; whereas, in some places, the top of the work was from seven to eight feet below low water of spring tides.  At length, after many years' labour and vast expense, the work has been brought to completion; and it now forms a very excellent defence for the fine war roadstead and arsenal of Cherbourg, greatly exceeding the humble dimensions which it presented when Mr. Rennie visited the place.  The whole cost of the works amounted to upwards of seven millions sterling.

p.444

Archibald Skirving, like John Rennie, was the son of an East Lothian farmer.  He was born in 1749, at Garleton, a farm belonging to the Earl of Wemyss.  His father, Adam Skirving, was a well-known humorist and ballad-maker—one of his songs, 'Hey, Johnny Cope,' a description of the rout of the royal army at the battle of Prestonpans, being still popular in Scotland.  In early life Archibald went to Rome to study art, and remained in Italy nine years.  He walked back the whole way from Rome, but, passing through France, the revolutionary war broke out, when he was apprehended and thrown into prison, where he lay for nine months.  He subsequently studied painting under David.  Returned to Scotland, be pursued his art in a somewhat desultory manner, not being under the necessity of applying himself to it with that patient and continuous devotion which is essential to attaining high eminence in any profession.  He painted when, where, and whom he pleased; and sometimes pursued a very singular course with his sitters.  Notwithstanding his eccentricity, Skirving was an extremely clever artist, and his crayon drawings have rarely been surpassed for vigour and brilliancy.  He executed probably the best head of Burns the poet, with whom he was intimate; and the portrait of John Rennie, which Mr. Holl has rendered with great skill, will give a good idea of Skirving's power as a delineator of character.  Skirving and Rennie were intimate friends, although in most respects so unlike each other.  Yet Skirving had as true a genius; and might have secured as great a reputation in his own walk as his friend Rennie, had he worked as patiently and industriously.  As he grew older, he became more eccentric and sarcastic.  He dressed oddly, in a broad-brimmed white hat, without any neckcloth.  Allan Cunningham relates the story of Skirving's calling on Chantrey while he was finishing the bust of Bird, the artist. "Well!—and who is that?" asked Skirving.  "Bird, the eminent painter."  "Painter!—and what does he paint?"  "Ludicrous subjects, Sir."  "Ludicrous subjects! —Have you sat?"  "Yes—he has had one sitting; but when he heard that a gentleman with a white hat, who wore no neckcloth, had arrived from the North, he said, 'Go—go; I know of a subject more ludicrous still ; Skirving is come!"' This odd, but clever artist died at Inveresk, near Edinburgh, in 1819, at the advanced age of seventy.